Module+2.3+Theory+Concept+Map

Coursework for Ed Tech 709, Applications of Learning Principles, Spring Semester, 2011 Marianne Rose

** Assignment: **
Show understanding of definitions and relationships between and among the following theories and principles.

= //Note: The concept map is included at the end of this page in a .jpeg file format.// //To enlarge the image on the screen (to view the text on the concept map a little easier), while pressing the Control key move the roller on the mouse. Since the whole concept map won't fit on the screen (too wide once the image is enlarged) use the bar at the very end of the page to move to the left or right of the image.// =

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__ ** Present three traditional theories of behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism with the additional details of definition, three main features, and external URLs that link to examples. ** __
**Behaviorism**

DEFINITION Behaviorists define learning as a change in behavior brought about by experience with little concern for the mental or internal aspects of learning.

MAIN FEATURES Three basic assumptions of behaviorism are: First, learning is manifested by a change in behavior. Second, the environment shapes behavior. Third, the principles of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond to be formed) and reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated) are central to explaining the learning process.

LINKS TO INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA EXAMPLES (click the URL to access each example) SOURCES Module 1 Reading B8, E-Learning Theories in Practice: A Comparison of Three Methods citation -- Mödritscher, Felix. E-Learning Theories in Practice: A Comparison of Three Methods. J. of Universal Science and Technology of Learning, vol. 0, no. 0 (2006), 3-18. Module 1 Reading B12a Article-- Educational Psychology and Views of Learning and Motivation citation link: Educational Psychology - History, Contemporary Views of Learning and Motivation, Issues and Controversies
 * 1) 1. Click the following web link to view elementary students participating in a Language for Learning Lesson. (www.youtube.com/watch?v=JCGC_5u9ya8)
 * 2) 2. Click the following web link to view the GoDaddy.com Jillian Michaels First Impressions Commercial. (www.youtube.com/watch?v=tO-8p0TKow0&NR=1 )

**Cognitivism**

DEFINITION: This learning theory stipulates that humans generate knowledge and meaning from an interaction between their experiences and their ideas. ...focus on individual and developmental differences in cognition ...approaches that teach learning strategies, such as summarizing, organizing, planning, and note taking ...consistent with the educational theories of Bruner and Ausubel ...behavior is determined by thinking, not simply by whether one has been rewarded or punished for the behavior in the past

MAIN FEATURES: 1. Knowledge can be seen as schema or symbolic mental constructions. Learning is defined as change in a learner’s schemata. Events of Instruction (conditions of learning) 2. Learning governed by internal memory processes rather than external circumstances 3. Cognitive psychology focuses on learners’ receiving and processing of information to transfer it into long- term memory for storage ... beginning from chunking the learning content into smaller parts and supporting different learning styles up to higher concepts such as motivation, collaboration or meta-cognition. ...well suited for reaching higher-level objectives, ...major weakness shows up...if a learner lacks of relevant prerequisite knowledge. To account for this, a course designer has to ensure that the instructions are appropriate for all skill levels and experiences

INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA EXAMPLES (click the URL to access each example):
 * 1) 1. Click the following web link to view the Learning the German Color Vocabulary (with an evaluation at the end). (www.youtube.com/watch?v=YHuaCKq8dOU&feature=related)
 * 2) 2. Click the following web link to view Joshua Klein's "The Amazing Intelligence of Crows" story. (www.youtube.com/watch?v=bXQAgzfwuNQ)

SOURCES Module 1 Reading Article-- e-Learning Theories in Practice: A Comparison of three Methods citation -- Mödritscher, Felix. E-Learning Theories in Practice: A Comparison of three Methods. J. of Universal Science and Technology of Learning, vol. 0, no. 0 (2006), 3-18.

Module 1 Reading Article, Educational Psychology - History, Contemporary Views of Learning and Motivation, Issues and Controversies citation link (html): Educational Psychology - History, Contemporary Views of Learning and Motivation, Issues and Controversies

**Constructivism**

DEFINITION: For this theory learning is an active, process of constructing knowledge in a specific context rather than acquiring knowledge. With respect to [Boethel & Dimock 1999], the following assumptions can be made up on this learning theory:
 * Learning is an adaptive activity and situated in the context where it occurs.
 * Knowledge is constructed by the learner who also deals with resistance to change.
 * Experiences and social interactions play a role in the learning process.

MAIN FEATURES: 1. Learners are in charge of their own search for meaning. 2. Knowledge is constructed based on personal experiences and hypotheses of the environment. Learners continuously test these hypotheses through social negotiation. 3. Knowledge is constructed from diverse sources appropriate to the problem at hand (flexible use of knowledge). 4. Learners create novel and situation-specific understandings. 5. In terms of sociocultural theory, all the assignments listed below function as scaffolds for the students' understanding by mutual, exchange, negotiation, and co-construction of the concept's essence. The teacher is a valuable coach during students' acquisition of knowledge.

INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA EXAMPLES (click the URL to access each example):
 * 1) 1. Click the following web link to view a World War II lesson. (www.youtube.com/watch?v=-O4S7t77EeE)
 * 2) 2. Click the following web link to view a Comparative Thinking Lesson. (www.youtube.com/watch?v=dxKtqDLNG6Y&NR=1)

SOURCES Module 1 Reading B4 Article "The Socio-Historical Theory of Lev Vygotsky" citation: Haenen, Jacques, et al. (2003). Sociocultural Theory and the Practice of Teaching Historical Concepts. Vygotsky's Educational Theory in Cultural Context, Kozulin, Alex, et al, ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 246-266.

Module 1 Reading B8 Article "e-Learning Theories in Practice: A Comparison of three Methods" citation: Mödritscher, Felix. E-Learning Theories in Practice: A Comparison of three Methods. J. of Universal Science and Technology of Learning, vol. 0, no. 0 (2006), 3-18.

__ ** Show relationships to my personal learning network, renamed and positioned in a separate node. ** __ Include relational connections to (1) traditional learning theories (2) to other frameworks from Module 1.

//Note: Refer to the concept map below for relational connections. T// //o enlarge the image (to view the text on the concept map a little easier), while pressing the Control key move the roller on the mouse//



====__ ** From Module 2, present graphic/visual design principles, Universal Design for Learning (UDL), and contemporary theories of multimedia learning in separate nodes and include the following information. ** __==== ** Graphic/visual design features with several main features ** //Note: refer to the following section of my concept map for nodes on Jakob Nielsen's "Laws," Keller & Burkman principles, and Gestalt principles//)



Note: //refer to the concept map below for the three UDL principles and guidelines that display with each.//
 * UDL with main features **
 * Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) with two main features **

Cognitive "load" is the demand imposed on working memory by information being presented. Cognitive load theory (CTL) is the instructional theory based on our knowledge (and related assumptions) of human cognitive architecture that specifically addresses the limitations of working memory. Aim of Instruction: …aim of instruction should be the acquisition of automated schemas. ...execution of this aim requires a constant monitoring of the working memory consequences of any recommended procedure.

MAJOR FEATURES: 1. Schema as a cognitive construct: ...systematically organizes information for storage in long term memory …large amounts of information can only be dealt with AFTER being appropriately organized …prior to being organized, amount of information is very small Schemas in long-term memory act as a "learned" central executive for working memory. Schemas indicate …what should be done …when it should be done. …how it should be done. When relevant or previously acquired information in LTM is NOT available-- decision making can only occur through: …random generalization …followed by effectiveness testing Exception: schemas (knowledge) held by others (if available in suitable form) No unlearned central executive can direct information in working memory

2. Management of multiple sources of information to minimize cognitive load: Integrated instructions: Multiple sources of information are physically integrated so working memory resources don't have to be used for mental integration. Split- attention instructions: Multiple sources of information are NOT physically integrated so working memory resources NEED to be used for mental integration. Dual modality instruction: In split attention conditions--use both auditory and visual information.

3. Three categories of cognitive load are additive, tending to increase cognitive load:

A. Extraneous cognitive load …ignores working memory limits (need to reduce) …fails to focus working memory resources on schema construction and automation 1. Worked example effect …learners studying worked exapmles that provide a solution to a problem--learn more ..in contrast to searching for a solution during problem solving that places heavey demands on working memory--interfers with schema construction 2. Split-attention effect …occurs when attention must be split between multiple sources of visual information that are all essential for understanding …Mental integration imposes a heavy extraneous cognitive load--reduced by physically inetgrating the multiple sources of information 3. Modality effect (Dual modality) …conditions where multiple sources of information are essential for understanding and learning--where the visual information requires learners to split their attention …reduced by presenting verbal material in spoken rather than written form. Note: cognitive load is reduced because the use of dual modality increases effective working memory capacity 4. Redundant effect …eliminating redundant information--such as a diagram plus a statement redscribing the diagram in words. 5. Expertise reversal effect Occurs because information essential for novices becomes redundant for more expert learners. …occurs when instructional procedures… … first loose their advantage with increasing learner expertise …then become disadvantageous compared to split-source visual presentation (Becomes disadvantageous compared to Split-source visual presentation).

B. Intrinsic cognitive load…cognitive load due to natural complexity of information that must be processed. Element interactivity: Extent to which elements of information that must be processed interact …High element interactivity--elements cannot be processed individually in working memory--Info. Seen as complex and difficult to learn …High working memory load imposed by multiple interacting elements--because they interact--must be processed simultaneously (rather than successfully) --example: learning a language, must consider all the words and relations among ghem because they interact

C. Germane cognitive load …the cognitive load caused by effortful learning (variety of examples to demonstrate a point) …effective cognitive load …likely assists schema construction ...increases cognitive load but increase is germane--will likely assist schema construction.

__ ** From Module 2 present two selected sites for analysis. ** __ Embed two URLs that provide examples and non examples

EXAMPLES Violation of the CLT theory: The South Carolina Retirement Systems website (www.retirement.sc.gov) provides a FAQ (frequently asked questions) web page violates this theory. Appropriate application of the theory: The Lake Powell Tours web page (www.lakepowell.com/tours.aspx) demonstrates appropriate application of the theory.

Source Sweller, John. Implications of Cognitive Load Theory for Multimedia Learning. Chapter 2, Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning, Richard E. Mayer, ed. Cambridge University Press (August 15, 2005) pp. 19-30.


 * Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) with two advanced principles **

The central hypothesis of the theory of multimedia learning that is based on three basic assumptions about how the human mind works. That is the human mind is a dual-channel, limited-capacity, active processing system. A theory of how people learn from words and pictures, ...based on the idea that people possess separate channels for processing verbal and visual material (dual-channels assumption), ...each channel can process only a small amount of material at a time (limited capacity assumption), ...and meaningful learning involves engaging in appropriate cognitive processing during learning (active-processing assumption).

TWO ADVANCED PRINCIPLES __Advanced Principle 1.__ Mayer describes five cognitive processes in the cognitive theory of multimedia learning. They do not necessarily occur in linear order. Successful multimedia learning is designed to require the learner to coordinate and monitor these five processes. These cognitive processes are likely to occur many times throughout a multimedia presentation. ...processes are applied segment by segment rather than to the entire message as a whole. ...learners select relevant words and images from the first sentence of the narration and the first few seconds of the animation; they organize and integrate them; and then this set of processes is repeated for the next segment,

Step 1. selecting relevant words from the presented text or narration,

Step 2. selecting relevant images from the presented illustrations, ...The need for selecting only part of the presented message occurs because of capacity limitations in each channel of the cognitive system. ...selection of words is not arbitrary. The learner must determine which words are most relevant - an activity that is consistent with the view of the learner as an active sense maker. ...selection of images involves paying attention to part of the animation or illustrations (process begins in the visual channel, but it is possible to convert part of it to the auditory channel) ...selection process for images - is not arbitrary because the learner must judge which images are most relevant to make sense out of the multimedia presentation.

Step 3. organizing the selected words into a coherent verbal representation, ...next step is to organize the words into a coherent representation - a knowledge structure that I call a verbal model.

Step 4. organizing selected images into a coherent pictorial representation, ...next step is to organize the images into a coherent representation - a knowledge structure that I call a pictorial model. model. ...input for this step is the visual image base - the images selected from the incoming pictorial message. ... output is a pictorial model- a coherent (or structured) representation in the learner's working memory of the selected images Notes on Steps 3&4. Learners do not have unlimited capacity to build all possible connections so they must focus on building a simple structure. The organizing process is not arbitrary, but rather reflects an effort at sense making - such as the construction of a cause- and-effect chain. ...learner builds causal links in which the first event leads to the second and so on.

Step 5. integrating the pictorial and verbal representations (images and words) and prior knowledge. ...making connections between word-based and image-based representations. ...input is the pictorial model and verbal model that the learner has constructed so far ... output is an integrated model, which is based on connecting the two representations. In addition, the integrated model includes connections with prior knowledge. This process occurs in visual and verbal working memory, involves the coordination between them. ... an extremely demanding process that requires the efficient use of cognitive capacity. ... process reflects the epitome of sense making because the learner must focus on the underlying structure of the visual and verbal representations.

__Advanced Principle 2.__ Processing printed text is a separate type of multimedia message for the dual-channel system, contrasted with the processing of pictures or spoken words. The presentation of printed text in multimedia messages creates an information processing challenge for the dual-channel system.

1. Multimedia presentation … student must read text and view an illustration. The verbal material must enter through the visual channel, the words must take a complex route through the system, and must also compete for attention with the illustration that the student is also processing through the visual channel.

2. Sensory Memory The words are presented visually so they must initially be processed through the eyes - as indicated by the arrow from "words" to "eyes." selecting words (cognitive process) student attends to some of the incoming words

3. Working Memory: images active cognitive processing can now take place. ...by mentally pronouncing the images of the printed words the student can get the words into the auditory/verbal channel - as indicated by the arrow from the images to the sounds. Once the words are represented in the auditory/ verbal channel they are processed like the spoken words (see previous list above) The words in the word base are disorganized fragments organizing words (cognitive process)

4. Working Memory: Verbal Model, Pictorial Model (same as previous "Processing of Spoken Word") Build the words into a coherent mental structure - indicated by the "verbal model" box. In this process, the words change from being represented based on sound to being represented based on word meaning. The result could be a cause-effect chain for the steps in lightning formation. integrating (cognitive process)

5. Integrated Model (same as previous "Processing of Spoken Word") ...the student may use prior knowledge to help explain the transition from one step to another and may connect words with pictures Results in an integrated learning outcome

====__ ** From Module 2 present two selected sites for analysis. ** __ ==== Embed two URLs that provide examples and non examples

Violation of the CTML theory: The South Carolina Retirement Systems website (www.retirement.sc.gov) provides a FAQ (frequently asked questions) web page violates this theory. Appropriate application of the theory: The Lake Powell Tours web page (www.lakepowell.com/tours.aspx) demonstrates appropriate application of the theory.Violation of the theory:


 * Four Component Instructional Design Model (4-C ID) with two main features **

Overview: The central hypothesis of the 4-C ID model is to provide guidelines for the design of learning tasks and the environments in which complex learning takes place. The ultimate goal is for the learner to transfer what is learned to real life situations. This model was elaborated for the design of multimedia learning environments.

The 4-C ID model assumes that all human knowledge is stored in cognitive schemata. It further supposes a cognitive architecture.The 4-C ID model does not provide any new perspective on human cognitive architecture nor does it reveal any new cognitive process. However it does create a model for instructional design with multimedia as the method for delivery of the instruction that integrates accepted elements of current cognitive theory.

Advanced Principles: 1. Learning processes are either related to the construction of schemata, including the formation of new schemata and the embellishment of existing schemata, or to the automation of schemata. One focus of the model is that meaningful learning is the result of both schema construction and schema automation.

2. The four interrelated component groups (containing the 14 multimedia principles) are labeled learning tasks, supportive information, procedural information, and part- task practice. Through these component groups numerous elements of current cognitive theory are incorporated, providing CBT design strategies that encourage learning and reduce the cognitive load on the very limited working memory.

Source:van Merrienboer, Jeroen J G. and Kester, Liesbeth. The Four-Component Instructional Design Model: Multimedia Principles in Environments for Complex Learning. Chapter 5, Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning, Richard E. Mayer, ed. Cambridge University Press (August 15, 2005) pp. 71- 93.

** Concept Map **
The following image is a jpeg graphic file of the concept map that I prepared using MindManager software to show relationships between and among the theories and principles presented for this assignment.

=** //Note: The concept map below is in a .jpeg file formats.// //To enlarge the image on the screen (to view the text on the concept map a little easier), while pressing the Control key move the roller on the mouse. Since the whole concept map won't fit on the screen (too wide once the image is enlarged) use the bar at the very end of the page to move to the left or right of the image.// ** =