Module+2.2+Current+Multimedia+Theories



Coursework for Ed Tech 709, Applications of Learning Principles, Spring Semester, 2011 Marianne Rose

==**Module 2.2 Scavenger Hunt and Analysis ** == ==**of Current Multimedia Theories ** ==

** Table of Contents **
Part A. Selected Features of Two Theories
 * 1) Features of Cognitive Load Theory (CLT)
 * 2) Features of Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML)

Part B: Website that Violates the Two Theories
 * 1) Violation of Cognitive Load Theory (CLT)
 * 2) Violation of Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML)

Part C: Web Page that Appropriately Applies the Two Theories
 * 1) Appropriate Application of Cognitive Load Theory (CLT)
 * 2) Appropriate Application of Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML)



Part A: Selected Features of Two Theories
This theory appeals to me, primarily for its focus on the following concepts.
 * 1. Features of Cognitive Load Theory (CLT)**

__a. Automated Schema__

Concept description: "Automated schema" is a type of knowledge in long term memory that we access without making a conscious effort, as we apply it to management of cognitive load in working memory. This type of knowledge is thoroughly rehearsed and although the components can be rather complicated, imposes minimal demands on working memory. A primary aim of instruction is to get new information into an automated schema.

Reflection: The healthcare workers in San Francisco that routinely practice emergency preparedness drills in case of an earthquake can demonstrate an application of this theory. During these simulations the healthcare workers can review and practice the most current methodology related to management of massive injuries in a population. As they go through a day or so of training in a crude make-shift hospital situation (such as a tent) and as they repeatedly treat the varied types of injuries anticipated from an earthquake, the standard procedures become part of the healthcare worker's automated schema in long term memory.

So, when an earthquake strikes, these healthcare professionals can focus the limited capacity of the working memory on the unique situations that arise as injured people arrive to be treated, while the automated long term memory eases the cognitive load by providing an unconscious schema containing knowledge and expertise that were previously constructed during the simulated drills.

__b. Direct Instructional Guidance vs. Inquiry-Based Learning__

Concept description: The cognitive load theory encourages the use of direct instructional guidance for design of multimedia instruction. With direct instructional guidance, instructors can share their own schema as a temporary substitute for the missing schemas of the learners. As students participate in meaningful experiences they can assemble their own schema. In contrast, inquiry-based learning encourages individual discovery activities that typically consist of time consuming random generation (exploring the possibilities) followed by testing (validation of concepts learned).

Reflection: I can apply this theory to learning a new computer software application. It is much easier with even a minimal amount of direct instructional guidance. This instructor guidance can include a simple structure with clarification of the "nature" of the software. By establishing some base-line assumptions about the behavior of the software, instructors provide a schema that they developed over time through repeated practice with resolving problems of the software or other software of the same type (e.g. database software).

In contrast, when new users attempt to "discover" a new software by working on their own, many interconnected and powerful features are overlooked. The new user tends to focus only on familiar software functionality with which they are familiar from previously created schemas. Over time this user explores new features but it is extremely slow, the learning typically focuses on isolated software features based on work needs, and interconnectivity of functions (where two features are combined to create additional benefits) is never explored or tested.

__c. Understanding__

Concept description: Sweller describes "understanding" as the ability to simultaneously process required elements in working memory. I think of working memory as a place where we consciously process information while becoming aware of the schema that exists in our long term memory.

To reach a state of understanding based on novel information, the learner must first organize the various elements into a schema that where all of the elements can be processed simultaneously. When the schema construction reaches a state of automation, understanding occurs as long as all of the elements needed for understanding have been processed.

Reflection: This concept of understanding suggests that a nonlinear event occurs in the learner's cognitive processing that takes place in long term memory. If the learner is exposed to additional information or new events where the understanding is applied, the process that leads to understanding may have to start all over again.

This theory appeals to me, primarily for its focus on the following concepts.
 * 2. Features of Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML)**

__a. Dual-Channels Assumption__

Concept description: The dual channels described by Mayer identify separate channels for processing visual/pictorial and auditory/verbal information. As the multimedia learning process begins, the learner briefly stores the visual or auditory elements in the sensory memory. Next, the images and/or sounds identified by the learner move very quickly to the left side of working memory store. If the learner organizes the selected images and/or words to establish simple connections (along either channel), a pictorial and/or verbal "model" is produced in the right side of working memory. Finally, an integrated model can result, but only if connections are made between the pictorial model, verbal model, and prior knowledge.

Reflection: As the learner organizes words and/or sounds in working memory, Mayer refers to the learner as an "active sense maker." We humans often try to give order to new information so it makes sense. I see the efforts of sense making to be an asset in instruction, where most learners will try to remove conflict (created with newly received information), as long as cognitive load is managed, until the final Integrated Model is formed.

Mayer also describes the organized information that results in the Pictorial Mode and Verbal Mode of working memory as "knowledge constructed" and a "knowledge structure." This seems to be the point where the information is simplified and contained in separate channels. However, learning only takes place, described as an Integrated Model, when prior knowledge interacts with the Pictorial Model and Verbal Model in harmony.

__b. Five Cognitive Processes in Multimedia Learning__

Concept description: These processes are separated into five steps based on the learner's attention to select relevant words (Step 1), select relevant images (Step 2) to make sense out of the multimedia presentation. Next the learner works to organize words (Step 3) and images (Step 4) into simple but harmonious verbal or pictorial structures. During the Steps 3 and 4, learners must manage the capacity limitations of working memory. Mayer suggests the learner also works with "sense making" during these steps such as developing a cause-and-effect chain. During Step 5. the learner integrates his/her organization of the pictorial and verbal models with prior knowledge with the result of the integrated model.

Reflection: This process is complicated and requires a certain amount of cognitive efficiency to successfully reach the point of knowledge construction in the integrated model. To accommodate the limits of working memory, the new information must be presented in small segments at a time, typically of short duration. The learner is led through multiple sweeps of this five-step cognitive process, as each level of learning is constructed by the learner in an integrated model that in turn is used as prior knowledge for the next information to be learned. The multimedia presentation can orchestrate the sequenced development of several of these integrated models as the learner builds the various cognitive constructs and makes sense of the newly learned information in the integrated model.

__c. Processing Pictures or Spoken Words vs. Processing Printed Words__

Concept description: The model of cognitive learning shows the various paths the cognitive path takes in the dual channel system, depending on the multimedia presentation of pictures, spoken words, or printed words. For cognitive processing of pictures or spoken words, the cognitive process follows a direct path along the visual or auditory channels respectively. However, the presentation of printed words is initially processed as visually presented material, but the learner quickly pulls it away from the auditory channel over to the visual channel (into the sensory memory store) as the eyes attend to selected words. This is a temporary crossover between channels because as the learner relates the selected words with related sounds, the cognitive process in working memory crosses back to the auditory channel, with the cognitive process continuing along this channel through organization for the verbal model.

Reflection: Mayer makes it clear that we need to minimize the amount of written text on screens for multimedia learning. He refers to the cognitive processing of printed words as a "challenge" for the dual channel system.

When words are presented with an illustration, the learner is presented with two competing elements that must be managed in the same visual channel for a time (until the working memory can move the text back to the auditory channel). It makes it clear why learners have to take extra time to manage this cognitive load where both text and illustrations. In addition, if design standards such as proximity and coherence (well connected representation of the main ideas) are violated, the additional cognitive load can easily cause the learning to withdraw from the learning opportunity.

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Part B: Website that Violates the Two Theories
The South Carolina Retirement Systems website (www.retirement.sc.gov) provides a FAQ (frequently asked questions) web page that violates the two theories selected for this assignment--the Cognitive Load Theory and the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning


 * 1. Violation of Cognitive Load Theory (CLT)**[[image:Module_2.2_deliverable--screen_capture_bad_SCRS_FAQ_page.JPG width="556" height="508" align="right"]]

__a. Limited Capacity Assumption__

Rationale for the violation: The capacity of working memory is very limited. The FAQ page violates this assumption by presenting printed text with no pictures, graphics (other than the logo) or narration. Assuming that the learner comes to the FAQ page for novel information to clear up a question, the landscape of printed text floods the working memory a single path with no variety provided in graphic or audio form to reduce the cognitive load.

Reflections: Based on the design's apparent assumption of unlimited working memory capacity for novel information, this web page violates the limited capacity assumption. Very little was planned in the design of this page to ease the heavy burden of text on cognitive load.

The disclaimer text is probably the first body copy that the learner notices. The presentation of the disclaimer uses a bold font, underline, and capital letters making it very hard to read, yet it is placed prominently near the top of the screen, dominating the learner's attention. It would be better, to include a graphic enhancement such as a boxed outline around the text with the underlined feature removed, to present a more refined message and to reduce the cognitive load this visual element produces.

__b. Extraneous Cognitive Load__

Rationale for the violation: The FAQ page does not manage extraneous cognitive load for the learner. The worked example effect is a type of extraneous cognitive load, where learners are provided with worked examples with a solution to a common problem, thereby reducing cognitive load and supporting schema construction. When learners must struggle to find meaningful answers on their own, as demonstrated with the content and design of the FAQ page, it increases cognitive load and the possibility the learner will give up on the learning event. It is also sets up a challenge for the learner to construct a schema.

Modality effect is another type of extraneous cognitive load that is violated by the design of the FAQ page. Use of printed words for the FAQ page constricts the cognitive processing to a single channel, thereby increasing the cognitive load. Cognitive load could be reduced if the design involved dual cognitive modes (e.g., including narration or graphics with the presentation of printed word). Use of dual modes essentially increases the capacity of working memory (relative to the limitations in that memory store) because of the reduction in cognitive load.

Reflections: No attempt is made to manage the learners extraneous cognitive load. By including additional links learners could gain access to worked examples. Also, the format and writing style for the FAQ page is print-based keeping the learner's cognitive process dragging along a single mode. By adding narration and or graphics to engage the dual modes, the learner's cognitive processing could improve, as long as the working memory limitations of capacity and duration are respected.

__c. Germane cognitive load__

Rationale for the violation: For another violation of this theory, the FAQ page does not manage germane cognitive load that could be beneficial to the learning. This load can be produced by effortful learning (variety of examples to demonstrate a point). This effortful learning typically increases cognitive load, but because of the connections (meaning) it provides to support with schema construction, it can reduce the extraneous cognitive load (see the previous entry regarding extraneous cognitive load).

Reflections: To correct this violation and promote effortful learning, the web page design can offer links to a variety of work examples, provide alternative instructional aides (e.g., diagrams, comparative charts), display brief multimedia clips, provide podcasts, or links to other pages of the site that could give additional clarification for each FAQ entry.


 * 2. Violation of Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML)**

__a. Selection as a Cognitive Process__

Rationale for the violation: As the learner attends to selected words or images during a multimedia message, the signals move quickly from the sensory memory store to the left side of working memory. This cognitive process can be conscious or unconscious for learners. However the design and delivery of multimedia should be very deliberate, conscious of the need to keep attention focused on the intended instructional elements from the start.

Reflections: The design of the FAQ page does not manage the learner's tendency to move just a few selected items into working memory.

__b. Organization as a Cognitive Process__

Rationale for the violation: Once the working memory receives the learner's selection of verbal or visual signals, it tries to establish connections and make sense of the information. Learners benefit from an organized presentation that suggests a hierarchy or conceptual relationships, lending itself to schema development. The FAQ page violates this theory in the focus on a print-based presentation that makes no attempt to help the learner make sense of the answers provided.

Active involvement by learners in effortful learning events contributes to schema development and long term learning. The FAQ page makes no effort to provide this type of activity.

Reflections: At the very least, the FAQ page could group related questions together so there is a flow or development from one question to the next, to support schema development. A table of contents at the top of the page could illustrate the hierarchical arrangement of the groups of questions (e.g., questions grouped by general, employee, retiree).

Also, the FAQ page does not provide a way for learners to actively process the information. This could be accomplished by including a brief retirement outline for the learner to complete that demonstrates cause-and-effect. Also, the learner could mark a set of radio buttons to narrow the list of questions to be displayed.

__c. Integrating Words and Images with Prior Knowledge as a Cognitive Process__

Rationale for the violation: The FAQ page violates design standards that could support this assimilation phase of the multimedia learning process. One of the obvious violations is the title placement for "General Frequently Asked Questions," that currently sits above the disclaimer, a noticeable distance away from the text to which it relates. The overall flow of the page is interrupted with the title "See our other FAQ sections: |Employer FAQ| Retiree FAQ|" positioned in large blue linked text over the question/answer elements. As the learner wastes time figuring out what these titles mean for the FAQ presentation, the construction of schema based on prior knowledge can stall out, not to mention frustrating the learner to the point of ending the learning session.

The disclaimer, considered as a mass of text, becomes a dominant focal point of the page because of the contrast and pattern it presents that's unlike anything else on the page. And because it is hard to read its purpose on the page is confusing. It is also very confusing to display the questions in blue with an underline that suggests hyper-linked text (but the text is not linked).

Reflections: This disjointed page needs major design revisions to support purposeful development of connections between words, images, and prior knowledge than can lead to schema development and understanding.

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Part C: Web Page that Appropriately Applies the Two Theories
The Lake Powell Tours web page (www.lakepowell.com/tours.aspx) demonstrates appropriate application of the two theories selected for this assignment--the Cognitive Load Theory and the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning.


 * 1. Appropriate Application of Cognitive Load Theory (CLT)**[[image:Module_2.2_deliverable--screen_capture_good_--_best_lake_powell.JPG width="556" height="434" align="right"]]

Rationale for the accurate application: This site successfully accommodates the working memory limitations in capacity and duration. There is a sense of balance in the use of dual modality between white space, printed text, photos, and blocks of visual elements on the right side. The cognitive load is further managed by providing links if learners choose to access more detailed information.

Reflections: The elements on the screen are carefully orchestrated to manage cognitive load. For example, by hovering the mouse pointer over the share symbol, the learner can display numerous social networking linked icons, but once the mouse is moved away the clutter of icons disappears. The learner must make a special movement to display images that increase cognitive load.


 * 2. Appropriate Application of Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML)**

Rationale: This web page is balanced and fluid, carefully leading the learner's eye in a seemingly casual way from one element to the next. It successfully manages cognitive load through techniques such as the chunking of coordinated information into one element for simplicity, use of multimedia and dual channels, and an accessibility tool for visually impaired.

The large photograph is prominently positioned but does not dominate the site. It presents an unusual view as we look at the back of a group of people and we start to wonder what has their attention. In the context of this website the photo is engaging especially after we consciously identify the curiosity that keeps drawing us back to it.

Most important, this web page allows for numerous passes through Mayer's information processing model, where the schema constructed (knowledge gained) from one pass supports sense making and connections made during the next pass through the process. The successful orchestration of all the parts makes it more likely that connections will be established between words, images, and prior knowledge.

Reflections: The subtle relationship between all the parts of this web page is refined and refreshing. I continue to be drawn back to the site to explore more of the links and learn more about their boat tours. This eagerness to return to a learning event and go through Mayer's information processing model repeatedly is significant. It allows a learner to expand understanding of a topic, where each pass through the model creates a sense of confidence and knowing, as more connections are made with prior knowledge.

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